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Which brand of memory card should I buy? Does it make a difference? How big of a card do I need? Is one large card better than multiple small cards? Does the speed rating of the card matter? This article was written to help answer these exact questions.

Cameras and lenses can be easily replaced, especially if they are insured. Those images from the three-week safari, your relatives wedding, or your summer long European tour, simply can’t.

Memory Card Reliability

The first thing to look at is the memory card itself. Most entry level and amateur level cameras use SD (Secure Digital) memory cards. Most professional and prosumer cameras use CF (Compact Flash cards). In general, Compact Flash cards tend to cost more, but offer higher read/write speeds, larger capacities and be less prone to failure than the Secure Digital Cards. This article will focus on those two card types.

While there are many manufacturers of memory card out there, the top tier, and the choice of the vast majority of pros, are SanDisk and Lexar. These are also the only two brands than Nikon tests with and recommends.

SanDisk claims a MTBF (Mean Time Before Failure) of over 1,000,000 hours – that’s almost 115 years before the average card fails. Their cards are rated for over 10,000 insertions. A sophisticated defect and error management system can rewrite data from a defective sector to a good sector on the fly. SanDisks built in Error Detection Code and Error Correction Code to try to recover corrupted data automatically.

The regular (blue) SanDisk CF card has an operating temperature range from 0°C to 70°C (32°F to 158°F). The Extreme III cards are rated with an operating range of -25°C to 85°C (-13°F to 185°F). They can withstand a shock of 2,000G (or about a 10 ft drop onto a concrete floor). Hard-drives can only withstand a 200-300G shock – a drop of less than 2 foot.

SanDisk quote less than 1 non-recoverable error in every 10^14 bits read (or one error for every 12.5 terabytes of data – or one out of every million 12.5Mb RAW files, or one out of every three million Fine JPEGs).

Overall the reliability from their Compact Flash cards is significantly better than even the best hard drives on the market today.

One important note: there are many fake SanDisk cards in the marketplace. Some of these are cheaper manufacturers cards with SanDisk stickers and packaging. Some are custom made with no quality control and put into SanDisk looking boxes. Our best advice, is to only buy from a reputable retailer like Amazon.com or BHPhotoVideo.com, and avoid buying memory cards that appear too cheap, are for sale on eBay, or some market stall while traveling etc – stick to reputable sources that are authorized dealers.

However, even with the best cards, errors do still occur. There are many, many millions of these cards in circulation today. Look at any DSLR internet forum, and you’ll find reports of lost images. Most of these you’ll note are either with cheaper cards, potentially fake SanDisk or Lexar cards, or caused by user error. If you remove the card from the camera before the camera has finished writing the data, you’ll lose images that the camera hasn’t completed writing. It’s very easy to accidentally format a card, especially if you use multiple cards. There are reports of certain software applications importing the images from the card, then the user deleting the card, only to find that the application only imported the thumbnail JPEGs that were embedded into the RAW image files, not the actual RAW image files. In virtually all these cases, most of the images are recoverable using data recovery software.

Bottom line, trying to save $20 on a memory card for a camera/lens system that costs hundred or thousands of dollars makes very little sense. If you stick with the top tier brands, memory cards are very, very reliable, and they are far from the weakest link in the typical users workflow.

Card Sizes: One Large Card vs. Multiple Small Cards

How much card space you need depends on what format you shoot (RAW files are significantly larger than JPEG’s), and how many shots you are likely to take between getting to a computer to clear off and backup the cards. If I’m traveling, I’ve usually got a laptop with me so I can backup my cards every evening. Some days I may only take a dozen shots, but it’s also not unknown for me to take several thousand shots in a day if I’m at an event with a lot of action.

On a Nikon D200 containing a blank 8Gb SanDisk card, the camera claims 480 shots are available for RAW shooting. This number is usually conservative, as the size of the RAW file varies. My Nikon D300 regularly gets around 700 shots on an 8Gb card using Lossless Compressed NEF files. If you switch the D200 to Fine JPEG, it shows 1,300 shots available. If you select RAW plus Fine JPEG, it shows 354 shots available. Your cameras manual will contain a table showing similar data for your particular model.

There are conflicting opinions as to if one large card is better, or if many smaller cards are. The argument for smaller cards is, that if your card fails or you drop your camera in the ocean, you lose less data. The argument for larger cards, is card failure is very rare, and largely recoverable. You also risk a much higher chance of dropping a card, getting it wet, sitting on it, losing it, accidentally erasing it, forgetting it or leaving it in your hotel room if you are managing multiple cards.

There are other things to consider also. Uploading to computer can take a long time – putting in one large card and leaving it to upload is a lot less work than swapping multiple smaller cards and uploading each one manually. A 4Gb size card is ideal if you back up to DVD – it’s the largest card size that will completely fit onto a DVD, making the back up a simple drag and drop.

There is no right or wrong answer, we’ve standardized on 8Gb Compact Flash cards – mainly because they hold a decent number of shots and usually offer the best price per gigabyte. I’ll carry up to ten of them with me when I’m traveling. As larger cards become more common and prices drop further, we’ll go to larger sized cards. The most important thing is to make sure you have enough memory card space to last you until you can upload them to a computer – it’s better to have more than you need than not enough.

Card Speed: How Fast Do I Need?

Memory cards come in a wide range of speeds, and the faster the card, the more expensive. How fast of a card you need depends on a number of items:

Is how long it takes for the images to upload to a computer important to you? If you are uploading via cable from your camera, your upload speed is limited by the camera. If you are using a CF of SD reader, you are limited by the speed of that. For the absolute fastest uploads, use a card that supports UDMA (like the SanDisk Extreme IV’s, SanDisk Ducati’s, and Lexar 300x) in a FireWire reader. For example, the SanDisk Ultra II 8Gb card claims a 15 Mb/second read speed, so that would take almost 9 minutes to upload on an optimally configured system. The 8Gb Ducati card claims a 45Mb/second speed, so would take less than three minutes to upload.
Which camera do you use? The Nikon D200 does not support UDMA, so even though an Extreme IV is faster in it than an Extreme III, the card is much slower than it is in the D300 – the D300 can handle a much faster data transfer rate.
How likely are you to fill the camera buffer? If you shoot landscape or take several minutes to compose each shot, then you don’t need a fast card. If you are shooting non-stop action and taking sequence after sequence at 8fps, you’ll need as fast a card as possible. Cameras like the D200 and D300 have a big enough on board buffer to store about 17 shots if you are shooting RAW. Once you’ve taken a picture, the camera writes it to the memory card and erases it from the buffer as soon as it can. Once the buffer is full, the camera won’t let you take another picture until it’s written an image to the memory card and made room in the buffer. If you are using an Ultra II card in a Nikon D300, this means you may only be able to take a shot every 2-3 seconds when the buffer is full. If you are using a Ducati card, you may still be able to manage a couple of frames a second. Then if you stop shooting, the Ultra II may take a minute or so to get the buffer cleared and all written to the card. The Ducati card will allow the camera to write the images to the card and clear the buffer in seconds.

If you take your time to compose each shot, and upload speed isn’t important to you, then memory card speed isn’t important. If you are shooting action or sports and use a rapid frame rate frequently, then you want the fastest card, and camera, that you can afford.

Data Recovery Whether you’ve accidentally removed your memory card while the camera was still writing, deleted or formatted the wrong card, or the card has developed an error, it’s usually possible to retrieve some, if not all of the lost data.

The higher end cards from both SanDisk and Lexar come with their respective data recovery software packages on CD. SanDisk’s is called RescuePro, and Lexar’s is called Image Rescue. Both are reputed to be very effective. A third part solution called PhotoRescue is also widely used and reputedly better than both SanDisk’s and Lexar’s offerings, fortunately we’ve not had the need to find out.

In Summary

Your photos are infinitely more important than your camera gear. By selecting the right memory cards and taking a few simple precautions, you can potentially save yourself from losing irreplaceable photographs due to the unforeseen events that hit us all occasionally.

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Policies and Procedures – Have a written policy on disciplinary action if an employee is stealing.

Clearly define the theft. Sure, we know that when we see it, but sometimes people see as a “loan”. An example of such a policy statement to define the theft as “The unauthorized removal of the tangible and intangible assets.” Warning not to use the word theft. Theft requires intent. Effects for the completion of its intention is not a problem. For trial, which is the crux of the allegations.

Communicate across the political orientation of new hires. Posters, newsletters, and blogs can help strengthen a gentle message. Make sure that all levels of society are linked to the policy of senior management.

Keep in mind that the precedents established with any termination. Ensure consistency in policy implementation. Management must set the tone and lead by example in matters of policy. If a manager takes a laptop computer so your child can do a PowerPoint presentation in class, why can not make any employee?

If there is not a formal department of internal investigations conducted by the formulation of a plan (in writing) which began an investigation and that it manages. Have a written policy on searches of vehicles, personal items such as backpacks, briefcases and backpacks.

Have a written policy regarding the refusal to allow a search.

Employees seeking

Warning! The ability to find someone (anyone) is a vital right for every business, but this should be considered very sensitive. Put in the position of the person being sought to understand the feelings of the process. There are many scenarios to justify the need for search, but this discussion will focus on workers and the implementation and management of the procedure.

Bag checks are common and must be accepted by the employees if you place and concerns addressed. If a company adopts a policy of requiring employees to submit to the pursuit of policy and procedure should be investigated with Human Resources, Legal, and Management. There are five rules that must be considered when formulating the policy:

Definition of “search.”

The searches are limited to anything outside the body. This includes bags, backpacks, brief cases, handbags, bags, etc. Do not touch anyone in the process. Do not search or undress. (yes, it happens).

The policy is in force for all levels of employees, including (especially) Management.

The consistency of the policy. Under what circumstances will be carried out a search?

Who has the authority to search?

Policies are only as good as people apply. Do not assume that a written policy created a written policy understood. Consistency in the application is the key. If, for example, there is a security person at the door and all employees are open to arrest and everything that they are carrying, including the president of the company or owner should. There must be a clear definition of how a search can be conducted. Which is defined as someone who can dig through it means a bag or a mere visual inspection is allowed? This is very important. A metal detector is suitable? If so how do you handle the activities?

Even with the best written policy from time to time someone is denied. These denials do not necessarily mean they are in the act of robbery, but they can be volatile situations, however, that can increase unnecessarily if handled improperly. What disciplinary action is available for an employee refuses to comply with company policy?

Unless there is a very compelling reason for not allowing the employee to leave if they refuse, then let them leave. First, however, one possible solution is to call a supervisor to remind employees of the policy. When the supervisor comes a discussion between the employee and the supervisor must be taken in an area that is as private as possible it could simply be to one side. If the employee continues to refuse to follow company policy after a quiet but firm discussion with a supervisor, and then allow the employee to leave. People who try to search should document the incident, whether it is possible to retrieve video and turn the matter to which the disciplinary action. If you have other witnesses, obtain their statements, too.

More points to consider are: What if something is discovered to actually perform the search? It is the discovery of drugs such as marijuana, a firearm or covered in the scope of the search? How are those handled? What if the search reveals something that is suspected of being of value to the company? What are the steps?

Controls

Audit of its own policies and procedures. These should be performed regularly and without notice.

Look carefully at everything that involves cash or other negotiable items. There should be a series of checks and balances in place to detect problems. Bank deposits are particularly vulnerable.

How are deposits controlled? Is there a notification if the bank deposit is a short or missing?

Notice to be someone other than the person who deposited the money?

Is there a review or notice of deposit to guarantee the deposits are made daily?

Is there a requirement that the deposits were made during the day only? This helps prevent employees from faking a robbery and stealing money.

It is the garbage disposal? Dumpsters are good places to hide the property only to return later and take it. How do you know what is in garbage bag? Tie the knot different.

If a company is not active, such as a laptop, there is a registration number and name of the product available.

Research

Warning! If a professional is involved, the research department, a private investigator, or simply a management or supervisor, the investigation of an employee for any reason is very serious. Researchers who have experience in internal affairs should be the first choice to conduct the investigation. There are companies that specialize in investigating white-collar crime that are available. Police departments are generally not equipped to properly investigate most of the thefts internally because they do not have the time to learn the inner workings of a company. They are definitely a resource to be used but will always be the conduit for the prosecution.

Immediately conduct a thorough investigation and if you learn of a theft. Document all research efforts.

Investigations are “sexy” to others. Remind everyone interviewed, not even a suspect, that the matter is confidential. Create a confidentiality agreement for signature, if possible. TIP: Employees often claim defamation after investigations. Keep all confidentiality agreements on notice about the sensitive nature. There is no real way to keep people talking about the investigation, but as long as researchers and management to maintain its confidentiality, the risk of a civil action is low. The termination should be possible if an action is broken confidentiality.

I am aware of a sexual harassment investigation when an entire department was interviewed on the basis of very detailed anonymous complaints. Each person was interviewed privately, and questions comments about or experiences with the department supervisor. The supervisor was fired but not admitted. After a defamation brought against the company. His argument was that people who knew nothing about the alleged activity now knew who was being accused of sexual harassment and that the termination confirmed the allegations. Prize: $ 17 million.

Testing is important. Business records, witness statements, physical evidence or video, should be preserved.

Thoroughly understand the laws on the use of polygraph tests and drugs. The use of the polygraph is governed by the Law on the Protection of Employee Polygraph and remains a viable tool when investigating a loss. If there are reasons to use a polygraph, my recommendation is to ask the police to do so. The employee can refuse that is their right. The results of the polygraph or refusal to undergo a polygraph is not grounds for terminating an employee. The entire investigation should be the basis for termination, not just solely on the results of the polygraph or the refusal to take the polygraph.

My experience with investigations into polygraphs is considerable but the results are mixed at best. I never had an employee refuses to submit to an estimate, however, I would only 95% never appeared. No one who allegedly committed a theft or who is alleged that have carried out a robbery was never found to be true. If a police department conducted the polygraph firstly, that he could not disclose the results. However, when I said they could not erase the employee as

a suspect, that in fact they gave me the results. Then conducted our own polygraph and, of course, has same results. Termination was based on a complete investigation. The polygraph is not the time but rather was a barrier to the findings. Failure to protect the assets of the company was common to talk upon termination.

Interview

Interview and interrogation is an acquired skill that is a mixture of recognizing body language, knowing that does not allow an offender to the top, be patient and know how and when to ask questions. There are two companies that offer instruction and training on conducting such interviews. WIcklander and Zulawski (www.wz.com) and Reid (www.reid.com). If the interviewer is unable, at least, should have established procedures for the rules to guide the non-research staff. The realization of “cold” that a series of interviews of people who are interviewed in the hope of obtaining an income, not for the novice. In other words, research must produce sufficient evidence and information to point to the real culprit (s). There is comfort in knowing what you know.

Here are some guidelines that must be considered. Be said that, regardless of skill level, extreme care is required of all interviews for research.

Interviews can be conducted with or without a witness present. Women workers should have seen this woman. A witness must sit outside the peripheral vision of the person being interviewed. The witness should not be an active part of the interview, but should take notes. If the employee diverts their attention to the witnesses to speak to them, simply redirect calm returns to the interviewer.

Be prepared. Create a description of how to present his case. They have their documentation and testing and preparation.

Props. Examples of objects: the bulk of file folders with labels such as “theft of Research John Doe” or videotapes with similar labels. A property is intended to give the interviewee the impression of evidence against him. My recommendation: Do not use. If your research has no merit alone then maybe the decision to talk to the employee should be reconsidered. Props to leave the theater.

Document the time of start and end of the interview and report on any offer of a rest for the use of a bath or drink even if it is rejected. Document the time of tenders and the acceptance / rejection.

Provide the employee a document acknowledging that you can stop the interview at any time and are free to leave at any time. They have to sign the document for your records. Do not put yourself between the employee and the door.

The most difficult part of an interview may just be starting. What do I say? If necessary, write a script and keep your hand as if giving a speech.

Being well aware of the duration of the interview. If an admission that has not been done in an hour, then it is unlikely that any will provide a discussion. It is important to understand that this does not mean that there is a standard length of the interviews suggest that neither precipitation is important. Simply keep in mind that the employee should never be given the impression that they will sit there until you confess or do not have the option to end the interview. However, my experience of more than 1,000 interviews for example tells me that is an hour at the edge of a reasonable period when interviewing someone and not have income.

There are pros and cons for taking notes. Respondents tend to be distracted when they find something written by someone. During the interview, try not to take too many notes. You return to the revenue later.

Audio or video recording of an interview is dangerous territory. If done, must be the full recognition and approval of the interviewee. I have an interview recorded in my career and was a witness, not a suspect.

Being aware of the lateness of the interview. Not be the only people around the building at 11:00 PM. Be aware that if the worker said he had an appointment and can not stand you may have to reschedule.

NEVER offer to negotiate the termination or prosecution. Do not offer if you just try not to “tell the truth or whether it just made the payments for loss” everything would be okay. ” Do not make statements implying that the investigation will make the morning news (perhaps) if you do not admit the allegations. Do not threaten to fire them if they refuse to take a polygraph.

Do not allow the interviewee to conduct the interview by demanding to take a polygraph. They can do that on their own if they wish, but it is not their decision as it relates to company business.

Show me the video! There is no obligation to show any video of the interview test. Note: If you say you have, make sure you do.

Employees have a hard time using the word “stealing, theft, intentionally lied.” Instead they use software such as “taking, provided, error, misleading.” Efforts should be made to clarify that they knew what they were doing was a robbery. While they were going to pay the money later, they were not authorized to take the money and do not belong to them. It is theft.

Expand the interview to understand how or where they learned he had the idea to do this. Sometimes employees are influenced when they see others do the same. This is especially true when a member of the leadership steal.

Obtain a written statement about the employee who committed the robberies. Request that includes the consequences of any other persons involved in the robbery. Ask them to be very specific about the allegations. They have dates, times, circumstances, and the property involved.

The conclusion of the interview should result in a written statement voluntarily. It must be written in the person’s own handwriting and signed by the witness as well. Paper times start and end of the drafting of the declaration. Obtaining a written statement is important, but is leaving the issue open to question the validity of the content. If at the end of the statement, which was left important facts or information, you may ask to write about it. OK, how the statement is written, bad writing, bad grammar, spelling and all.

Finally, we should not read his Miranda rights, unless they are interviewed by law enforcement.

Completion

Terminals for theft should not be handled in a manner different from any other termination of the facts. Completion is based on an established policy and procedure. Sometimes, however, theft is considered on a scale of value. Example: A bottle on a table was set up to collect money for a charity. An employee who need lunch money, stole (was going to return the next day) $ 2.00. The money was not property of the company, but the employee finished anyway. The theft of anything causes of loss of confidence and can not terminate a dangerous precedent.

Consult your lawyer or the Legal Department with respect to its investigation. Ultimately, they will have to defend the actions of the company when it comes to that. Nothing can prevent someone from filing a civil lawsuit. The most important thing is that actions are defensible in court and that the plaintiff did not prevail.

Consider ending the use of “Violation of Company Policy” in the theft. It is easier to defend because it does not require intent or suggested.

Industries that employ young people are very aware of parents in the termination of his son. If the child is an adult (based on the definition of State of adults), then the parents have no right to know anything about the actions of the employer. A minor parents have no “rights” which requires a company to analyze the employment of his son or any action taken. However, discretion is sometimes the best way and the case is discussed. What do you know the parent is often very different from the truth. Consult your lawyer before releasing any information.

Dealing with parents, guardians, spouses and friends is sometimes difficult. The hard fast

rule is that a company should not discuss with anyone inside information. Minor children hate

prospect of telling their parents who were fired for stealing, and therefore, information is withheld or watered down. There are times when I read the statement of the employee to the parents by telephone and, in most cases, and was surprised that is the end of the conversation. There are other times when parents are hostile and demand copies of the records, statements, and video and threaten to sue. I have no obligation to speak with them or disclose the contents of research and usually simply replied advice to talk to his son again, because they are not given any information. Never has taken any civil action because of my lack of communication with parents.

Suspension. Suspension before termination is highly recommended. This serves as a sort of cooling-off period to collect all the pieces of research together for review. While it may be a conclusion that the termination is carried out, remains a good practice.

OTP

In percentage, few employees are actually prosecuted for theft. There are many reasons why, but frankly, it may simply not enough evidence that a prosecutor would want to take the case to trial. Prosecution is rare in the full restoration of the company and if restitution is required, is the return over the life of his parole. Much of the roster will be used to prosecute an employee. Cost must be weighed. The argument is made that the prosecution does not set a bad example. The question we must answer is who knows that were prosecuted and who knows what the outcome was. It is not research?

OTP has a value but it is a business decision. Consider the following carefully to make that decision.

In most cases, call the police immediately is not necessary. While it may be more dramatic, there is no need to send someone to the door in handcuffs. It is better to make research and take it to the local police. Do not rush this part of their investigation. The criminal process is not as portrayed on television.

His case can be well documented, but the prosecutor may decide to plea bargain the case to a lower cost. Is out of your hands. His case may languish in the system because it is not a priority.

Loss of a criminal case may lead to a civil action based on malicious prosecution. You can have a confession for $ 1000, but it may only be $ 50. Charges may be accepted only on demonstrable $ 50.00.

Restitution and Civil Restitution

Restitution is an available option in any case. It is simply the employee is in agreement with what they stole back. Civil restitution is available in most states. Civil restitution is allowed, in general, through a civil statute, which basically said that a company can seek civil damages for the time and effort needed to investigate the incident. Every state has enacted what is known as the civil suit, has a range of damages that can be asked. In Texas, for example, damages up to $ 1,000 can be sought against one adult and up to $ 5000 against the parents of a minor. The monetary value of the theft is irrelevant. What is important to know is that restitution is a civil procedure. In essence, an employer may ask the trial, full restitution, and then file civil restitution. Check with your attorney about this and how to pursue this aspect. Regardless of the method chosen must have a written policy in place to adequately cover the practice.

If you try, you will receive restitution through the courts and for the courts as to the amount (if any) for payment and the amount of time to pay. If the prosecution is not then the return must be agreed and a promissory note must be created. I recommend a one-year period with equal payments every month.

Check with your attorney or human resources department and discuss how an employee may voluntarily waive final pay, vacation pay, profit sharing or other sources within the company for a refund. A document must be created, allowing the employee to use those funds for restitution. The form must be signed but need not necessarily to be notarized. This method provides the greatest opportunity to recover from a robbery.

After the action

This is the part that is often on the sidelines of an investigation: the analysis of root causes, or what happened and why we did not catch it before? Prevention is the key and connect gaps in their current way of doing business is a challenge. Prevention efforts will be successful about 80% of the time. A component of prevention is the fear of detection. It’s the old question of who would steal a million dollars if no one knew who did it. Some people will never steal. Some steal if given a chance, regardless of the possibility of detection. Group fears that middle managers who are outside. This screening process should be in place through rigorous monitoring of controls, policies and procedures. The arrest of an employee is the result of a failure somewhere along the way. Note that all procedures are written with a perfect world in the proceedings, but never followed correctly 100% of the time. Employees take advantage of the systemic weakness and human error. You can not have one without the other.

Review of each piece of the chain of events in connection with the robbery. Remember … you asked the employee how this happened. Make changes, but try not to go overboard and put safeguards in place that are beginning to hamper business.

Secrets to a successful employee theft Research

Even the most sophisticated financial crimes is limited to one thing: some “rule”, whether political, procedural law, act, or note on the time clock has been violated. While this may be too obvious, is important when it comes to the time of the interview. Stating that the employee understands the proper way to conduct their business will be the cornerstone of all actions. While pretending ignorance can be offered, it is extremely rare that the person did not know they were in violation, especially when it comes to theft. Researchers sometimes miss this great opportunity for discussion. The employee should be encouraged by the fact that they know how things are done properly and can recite it almost verbatim. However, it is a trap without realizing it, because his research showed that may have eluded them for protection. This method to dispel any notion of a lack of training.

The most important facet of an investigation is to learn what you do not know. His research can reveal all sorts of incriminating evidence, but that is what took place and it is likely that several events have not occurred. Too often, an employee is given a file and said “Tell me about this.” What’s the next question if the answer is “I do not know.” The fruits of the research will extend far beyond what is called the interview process if handled properly. The smallest admission of theft is the beginning of an interview that ultimately merely confirms what we already knew. The success of the interview always wins over what is known. The art is knowing how to get that information.

The idea that the interviews and interrogations are mixed and arrogant is untrue. Professional investigators and hold a conversation with humor. It is not about the words spoken, but more about the body language. The investigation of crime of any kind requires training and experience. Evidence is not very difficult, but the success of the investigation ultimately links to the individual events. In cases where admission is not done, one must be prepared to act in the same test. An accusatory interview / interrogation will be a disaster if the employee returned to work. Do not rush into an interview without knowing the facts.

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Fine Arts is defined in the Encarta Dictionary as being, “any art form, for example, painting, sculpture, architecture, drawing, or engraving, that is considered to have purely aesthetic value” (Encarta, 2004). Though this definition is used in relationship with the arts in the regular world, in regards to teaching, fine arts is defined as a subject beneficial, not essential, to the learning process and is often phased out because of lack of time, little learning potential, and no money. Fine arts is simply seen as painting and drawing, not a subject studied by an academic scholar. Writer Victoria Jacobs explains, “Arts in elementary schools have often been separated from the core curriculum and instead, offered as enrichment activities that are considered beneficial but not essential” (Jacobs, 1999, p. 2).

What is missing in classrooms is the lack of teacher knowledge of the benefits of maintaining an art- based curriculum. Teachers “have very little understanding of the arts as disciplines of study. They think of the arts instruction as teacher-oriented projects used to entertain or teach other disciplines” (Berghoff, 2003, p. 12). Fine arts expand the boundaries of learning for the students and encourage creative thinking and a deeper understanding of the core subjects, which are language arts, math, science, and social studies. Teachers need to incorporate all genres of fine arts, which include, theater, visual art, dance, and music, into their lesson plans because the arts gives the students motivational tools to unlock a deeper understanding of their education. Teaching the arts is the most powerful tool that teachers can present in their classrooms because this enables the students to achieve their highest level of learning.

From 1977 to 1988 there were only three notable reports demonstrating the benefits of art education. These three reports are Coming to Our Senses, by the Arts, Education and Americans Panal (1977), Can we Rescue the Arts for American Children, sponsored by the American Council for the Arts (1988), and the most respected study, Toward Civilization, by the National Endowment for the Arts (1988). These three studies conjured that art education was very important in achieving a higher education for our students. While these studies proved the arts to be beneficial to the learning process, it was not until 2002 when the research analysis of Critical Links: Learning in the Arts and Student Academic and Social Development “provided evidence for enhancing learning and achievement as well as positive social outcomes when the arts were integral to students’ learning experiences” was taken seriously by lawmakers (Burns, 2003, p. 5). One study, in this analysis, was focused on the teaching of keyboard training to a classroom in order to see if student’s scores on spatial reasoning could be improved. It was then compared to those students who received computer training which involved no fine art components. This concluded that learning through the arts did improve the scores on other core curriculum subjects such as math and science where spatial reasoning is most used (Swan-Hudkins, 2003).

This study shows how one little change in the way students are taught through the arts can have a powerful impact on their learning achievements and understandings. Another study showed at-risk students who, for one year, participated in an art- based curriculum raised their standardized language arts test by an average of eight percentile points, 16 percentile points if enrolled for two years. Students not engaging in this form of activity did not show a change of percentile (Swan-Hudkins, 2003). Though this may not seem like a big increase, at- risk students were able to use this style of learning to better understand their learning style thus bettering their learning patterns. The most interesting case study in this analysis involved the schools of Sampson, North Carolina, where for two years in a row their standardized test scores rose only in the schools that implemented the arts education in their school district (Swan-Hudkins, 2003). Teaching the arts needs to be incorporated in every teachers daily lesson plans because, based on these studies, students who are taught through the arts raise their test and learning levels.

Due to the high volume of attention President Bush’s, No Child Left Behind Act, has required in schools, teaching the arts is left behind. Another reason for the lack of arts in the classroom author Victoria Jacobs explains, “Given the shrinking budgets of school districts around the country, art specialists and art programs have disappeared from many elementary schools” (Jacobs, 1999, p. 4). Fine arts are being seen as non-educational or an extra-curricular activity. Therefore, when there is a lack of money in school districts, this subject is easily being cut. Teachers need to find a way to incorporate the arts into the classroom rather than rely on outside activities and Jacobs suggests teaching “through the arts… with a means of using the arts successfully and in a way that it is not just “one more thing” they must include in the curriculum” (Jacobs, 1999, p. 4).

The arts can open the minds of students in ways mere reading and writing will never be able to accomplish. Yet, the point of teaching this subject is not to teach about the arts, but to teach through the arts. Jacobs explains,

Teaching though the arts requires students to engage in the act of creative art. For example they might draw a picture, write a poem, act in a drama, or compose music to further their understanding of concepts in content areas other than the arts. Teaching through the arts helps students experience concepts rather than simply discussing or reading them. This approach is consistent with educational theories that highlight the importance of reaching multiple learning styles or intelligences. (Jacobs, 1999, p. 2)

Teaching through the arts can be done in many different ways depending on the teacher’s interests, but truly is the only way to reinforce the students learning experience. In a time where budget cuts and new learning laws are being established, teachers need to be more informed and educated on the negative impacts of the loss of the fine arts programs.

Three, veteran teachers at a public elementary school did a case study which involved teaching through the arts. They believed “our students had to experience cycles of inquiry wherein they learned about the arts and through the arts, and that they needed to see teachers of different disciplines collaborate” (Berghoff, 2003, p. 2).

The study was based on teaching a history lesson unit on Freedom and Slavery through the arts. Ms. Bixler-Borgmann had her students listen to the song “Swing Low, Sweet Chariot” in many different styles of music, such as an African-American Quartet, Reggae, and Show Tunes. She then incorporated this lesson into the importance singing played to the slaves at that time. Ms. Berghoff had her students read samples of African-American folk literature and write down sentences that made an impact on them while they were reading. She then incorporated those sentences into group poems. Ms. Parr explored two art pieces entitled, “Swing Low, Sweet Chariot” and had the students talk about artwork by asking three questions: “What is going on in this picture? What do you see that makes you say that? What else can you find?” (Berghoff, 2003). She also had the students focus on the images, concepts, and meanings which the artists wanted to depict. Ms. Parr felt this would teach the students how to uncover the hidden meanings in other core curriculum subjects (Berghoff, 2003). After the study, the students were asked what and how they had learned from this style of teaching.

Many students wrote in their journals that working in multiple sign systems in parallel ways heightened their emotional involvement. They found themselves thinking about what they were learning in class when they were at home or at work. They noted that even though they had studied slavery at other times, they had never really imagined how it felt to be a slave or thought about the slaves’ perspectives and struggles. (Berghoff, 2003)

The students had learned more from this lesson because they were able to use all styles of learning and were taught from an angle which is rarely used, through the arts. “Studies indicate that a successful arts integrated program will use these components to guide student learning and assess growth and development (Swan-Hudkins, 2003). The students were able to learn based on abstract thinking and find the deeper meaning of the lessons prepared by the teachers.

“The study of the arts has the potential for providing other benefits traditionally associated with arts….arts has been linked to students’ increased critical and creative thinking skills, self-esteem, willingness to take risks, and ability to work with others” (Jacobs, 1999, p. 4). With these benefits, teachers can not afford to limit their teaching of the arts in the classroom. Teaching through the arts are the key elements of learning and the traits teachers strive to establish and reinforce in their students. By working through the arts, instead of about the arts, the students’ educational experience will be achieved in a different way than just teaching the standard style of learning. Former Governor of California, Gray Davis, noted, “Art education helps students develop creativity, self-expression, analytical skills, discipline, cross-cultural understandings, and a heightened appreciation for the arts” and that “students who develop artistic expression and creative problem solving skills are more like to succeed in school and will be better prepared for the jobs and careers of the future” (California Art Study, 2003, p. 1).

Exposing students to abstract learning will teach the students about logic and reasoning and help them grasp what might not be represented on the surface. Recent Reports from the National Art Education Association (NAEA) confirmed with Governor Davis when they reported “Students in art study score higher on both their Verbal and Math SAT tests than those who are not enrolled in arts courses (California Art Study, 2003, p. 5). Attached is a copy of the test scores of students in the arts and students with no arts coursework.

What is a better way to enhance a lesson plan than to add another dimension of learning than by incorporating different levels of teaching? A company that has the basis of focusing on different learning styles is Links for Learning, [http://www.links-for-learning.com]. This company understands the importance of incorporating arts into the classroom. Former Secretary of Education, William Bennet wrote, “The arts are essential elements of education just like reading, writing, and arithmetic…Music, dance, painting, and theater are keys to unlock profound human understanding and accomplishment” (Swann-Hudkins, 2002).

An example of the benefits of teaching the arts would be the study of a teacher who taught the water cycle lesson through movement and music. The students were introduced to the water cycle in the traditional style of teaching, reading and lecturing. Yet, in order for the students to fully understand the “experience” of being a snowflake, the students listened to Tchaikovsky’s Nutcracker Suite (The Waltz of the Snowflakes) and closed their eyes visualizing the adventure snowflakes encounter on there way to the ground. A great side effect of dance is that “exposure to dances foreign to them (the students) helps them to understand and appreciate differences in societies. Their minds become open to new ideas and a different perspective. This understanding helps to eliminate possible prejudice, enriching the student and our society” (Swan-Hudkins, 2003, p.17). While the music was playing the teacher asked them questions, such as, “How are they going to land” and “What do you see as you are falling”. The second time listening to the music the students were asked to act out the water cycle through movement and dance. Teachers should know “a class that includes dance can make students feel empowered and actively involved in their education. In creating their own dance, students develop conceptional thinking, which is not always expressed verbally” (Swan-Hudkins, 2003, p. 17).

With these activities, the students were able to become part of the water cycle instead of just using their listening skills and trying to mentally figure out this lesson. The teacher also had the students write a poem using words they felt while they, the snowflakes, were falling to the ground (Jacobs, 1999, p.2). “The motivational powers of the arts are significant as this teacher explained, “Hooking a kid is half, if not more than half, the battle of learning. If you can hook them, then you can get them to learn” (Jacobs, 1999, p. 6). Teachers need to gain access to all styles of learning which can only spark their motivational powers.

Harvard Project Researchers Winner and Hetland remarks, “The best hope for the arts in our school is to justify them by what they can do that other subjects can’t do as well” (Swan-Hudkins, 2003, p. 18). Teachers need to gain a better education of teaching their students through the arts. Without the arts, teachers are limiting their students’ ability to use their entire thinking process, providing less opportunity for complete comprehension. Teaching through the arts is the most powerful tool that teachers can give in their classrooms because it enables the students to achieve their highest level of learning.

With the lack of attention art is getting outside of the classroom, teachers cannot afford not to incorporate dance, theater, visual arts, or music in their lesson plans. Fine arts is the core curriculums constant and most important companion. No child should be left behind, and teaching through the arts will reinforce this idea.

Resources

Berghoff, B., Bixler-Borgmann, C., and Parr, C. (2003). Cycles of Inquiry with the Arts. Urbana, 17, 1-17.

Burns, M. (2003). Connecting Arts Education Policy and Research to Classroom Teaching. Presented at The Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Chicago, IL.

California Art Study. (2003). Retrieved on April 18 from [http://216.239.57.104/search?q=cache:IM_j8A3_whsJ:www.smc.edu/madison/about/draft_eir/appendix_f_purpose.pdf+benefits+California+art+study&hl=en&ie=UTF-8]

Encarta Online Dictionary. (2004). Retrieved on April 17 from http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_/fine%20arts.html

Jacobs, V. and Goldberg, M. (1999). Teaching Core Curriculum Content through the Arts. Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Ontario, Canada.

Swan-Hudkins, B. (2002). The Effect of an Elementary Fine Arts Program on Students’. M.A.Thesis. Salem International University. Salem, West Virginia.

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If you are in the market for a new desktop computer, you know that the number of choices available is staggering. We know how difficult it can be to wade through all of the information, so we have put together a list of the Top 10 best desktop computers. This list should give you a better idea of the type of computer you want, while giving you a broad range of companies to select from. So, without further ado, let’s check out the computers that make the grade.

#10 – Lenovo 3000 J Series: These computers are geared towards families, and they combine the power of AMD 64 processors with the function of a 250MB Hard Drive. Priced at less than $800, these systems clock in as a real crowd pleaser.

#9 – Fujitsu Esprimo C: This is one of the smallest desktops available on the market, and it is also one of the sleekest. These machines can be tailored to your individual needs, and will not disappoint.

#8 – Alienware Area 51 Series: These great looking machines offer unparalleled performance to even the most serious game enthusiasts. The graphics and sound capabilities coupled with the speed of Intel 4 processing make this a must have for those who want a desktop that entertains.

#7 – emachines D5039: Hands down, this desktop is the best value on the market. Emachines is a well repected PC company that has the family in mind, and does a great job of offering amazing products at unbeatable prices. This unit contains everything you need to get started – definitely worth a look (or two!).

#6 – Sony Vaio RB60: This desktop from Sony comes bundled with a lot of cool Sony software, and it also comes equipped with a 17″ LCD display. This is a perfect choice for those wanting a great entertainment PC that also handles work and internet. This product is definitely a solid choice.

#5 – Compaq Presario Series: These computers are very affordable and very reliable. Compaq Presario desktops are the perfect choice for families, and come standard with everything you need to instantly start surfing the web.

#4 – HP Pavilion Series: A much underrated desktop line, the HP Pavilion series features dual core processors, which make multi-tasking a breeze. They also offer easy memory expansion as well as some of the sharpest graphic and sound cards in the business.

#3 – Apple iMac: When it comes to music and video capabilities, the Apple iMac desktop is second to none. Macs are quickly gaining steam in the computer race, and with good reason. You won’t be sorry giving this one a try.

#2 – Gateway DX310 Series: Dual core processors mean this unit is just as fast as other higher priced competitors. Gateway offers amazing customer support, and also has some of the most generous rebate offers in the business. In addition, they make it very easy to earn free upgrades. Do yourself a favor and give Gateway a look.

#1 – Dell XPS 400: This computer tops our list for many reasons. The only thing you need to know is that it look great, it runs amazingly fast (and quiet), and it comes bundled with a 19″flat screen monitor. All of this for under $1000 makes the Dell XPS one sweet deal.

This list of the Top 10 best desktop computers should make buying your next computer a quick and painless process. In fact, considering how great these desktop computers are, you might just find yourself wanting to take more than one home! Have fun!

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ROUTING PROTOCOLS

A generic term that refers to a formula, or protocol, used by a router to determine the appropriate path over which data is transmitted. The routing protocol also specifies how routers in a network share information with each other and report changes. The routing protocol enables a network to make dynamic adjustments to its conditions, so routing decisions do not have to be predetermined and static.

Routing, Routed and Non-Routable Protocols

ROUTING | ROUTED | NON-ROUTABLE

ROUTING PROTOCOLS

ROUTING PROTOCOLS are the software that allow routers to dynamically advertise and learn routes, determine which routes are available and which are the most efficient routes to a destination. Routing protocols used by the Internet Protocol suite include:

· Routing Information Protocol (RIP and RIP II).

· Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).

· Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS).

· Interrior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP).

· Cisco’s Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP).

· Border Gateway Protocol (BGP).

Routing is the process of moving data across two or more networks. Within a network, all hosts are directly accessable because they are on the same

ROUTED PROTOCOLS

ROUTED PROTOCOLS are nothing more than data being transported across the networks. Routed protocols include:

· Internet Protocol

o Telnet

o Remote Procedure Call (RPC)

o SNMP

o SMTP

· Novell IPX

· Open Standards Institute networking protocol

· DECnet

· Appletalk

· Banyan Vines

· Xerox Network System (XNS)

Outside a network, specialized devices called ROUTES are used to perform the routing process of forwarding packets between networks. Routers are connected to the edges of two or more networks to provide connectivity between them. These devices are usually dedicated machines with specialized hardware and software to speed up the routing process. These devices send and receive routing information to each other about networks that they can and cannot reach. Routers examine all routes to a destination, determine which routes have the best metric, and insert one or more routes into the IP routing table on the router. By maintaining a current list of known routes, routers can quicky and efficiently send your information on it’s way when received.

There are many companies that produce routers: Cisco, Juniper, Bay, Nortel, 3Com, Cabletron, etc. Each company’s product is different in how it is configured, but most will interoperate so long as they share common physical and data link layer protocols (Cisco HDLC or PPP over Serial, Ethernet etc.). Before purchasing a router for your business, always check with your Internet provider to see what equipment they use, and choose a router, which will interoperate with your Internet provider’s equipment.

NON-ROUTABLE PROTOCOLS

NON-ROUTABLE PROTOCOLS cannot survive being routed. Non-routable protocols presume that all computers they will ever communicate with are on the same network (to get them working in a routed environment, you must bridge the networks). Todays modern networks are not very tolerant of protocols that do not understand the concept of a multi-segment network and most of these protocols are dying or falling out of use.

· NetBEUI

· DLC

· LAT

· DRP

· MOP

RIP (Routing Information Protocol)

RIP is a dynamic internetwork routing protocol primary used in interior routing environments. A dynamic routing protocol, as opposed to a static routing protocol, automatically discovers routes and builds routing tables. Interior environments are typically private networks (autonomous systems). In contrast, exterior routing protocols such as BGP are used to exchange route summaries between autonomous systems. BGP is used among autonomous systems on the Internet.

RIP uses the distance-vector algorithm developed by Bellman and Ford (Bellman-Ford algorithm).

Routing Information Protocol

Background

The Routing Information Protocol, or RIP, as it is more commonly called, is one of the most enduring of all routing protocols. RIP is also one of the more easily confused protocols because a variety of RIP-like routing protocols proliferated, some of which even used

the same name! RIP and the myriad RIP-like protocols were based on the same set of algorithms that use distance vectors to mathematically compare routes to identify the best path to any given destination address. These algorithms emerged from academic research that dates back to 1957.

Today’s open standard version of RIP, sometimes referred to as IP RIP, is formally defined in two documents: Request For Comments (RFC) 1058 and Internet Standard (STD) 56. As IP-based networks became both more numerous and greater in size, it became apparent to the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) that RIP needed to be updated. Consequently, the IETF released RFC 1388 in January 1993, which was then superceded in November 1994 by RFC 1723, which describes RIP 2 (the second version of RIP). These RFCs described an extension of RIP’s capabilities but did not attempt to obsolete the previous version of RIP. RIP 2 enabled RIP messages to carry more information, which permitted the use of a simple authentication mechanism to secure table updates. More importantly, RIP 2 supported subnet masks, a critical feature that was not available in RIP.

This chapter summarizes the basic capabilities and features associated with RIP. Topics include the routing update process, RIP routing metrics, routing stability, and routing timers.

Routing Updates

RIP sends routing-update messages at regular intervals and when the network topology changes. When a router receives a routing update that includes changes to an entry, it updates its routing table to reflect the new route. The metric value for the path is increased by 1, and the sender is indicated as the next hop. RIP routers maintain only the best route (the route with the lowest metric value) to a destination. After updating its routing table, the router immediately begins transmitting routing updates to inform other network routers of the change. These updates are sent independently of the regularly scheduled updates that RIP routers send.

RIP Routing Metric

RIP uses a single routing metric (hop count) to measure the distance between the source and a destination network. Each hop in a path from source to destination is assigned a hop count value, which is typically 1. When a router receives a routing update that contains a new or changed destination network entry, the router adds 1 to the metric value indicated in the update and enters the network in the routing table. The IP address of the sender is used as the next hop.

RIP Stability Features

RIP prevents routing loops from continuing indefinitely by implementing a limit on the number of hops allowed in a path from the source to a destination. The maximum number of hops in a path is 15. If a router receives a routing update that contains a new or changed entry, and if increasing the metric value by 1 causes the metric to be infinity (that is, 16), the network destination is considered unreachable. The downside of this stability feature is that it limits the maximum diameter of a RIP network to less than 16 hops.

RIP includes a number of other stability features that are common to many routing protocols. These features are designed to provide stability despite potentially rapid changes in a network’s topology. For example, RIP implements the split horizon and holddown mechanisms to prevent incorrect routing information from being propagated.

RIP Timers

RIP uses numerous timers to regulate its performance. These include a routing-update timer, a route-timeout timer, and a route-flush timer. The routing-update timer clocks the interval between periodic routing updates. Generally, it is set to 30 seconds, with a small random amount of time added whenever the timer is reset. This is done to help prevent congestion, which could result from all routers simultaneously attempting to update their neighbors. Each routing table entry has a route-timeout timer associated with it. When the route-timeout timer expires, the route is marked invalid but is retained in the table until the route-flush timer expires.

Packet Formats

The following section focuses on the IP RIP and IP RIP 2 packet formats illustrated in Figures 44-1 and 44-2. Each illustration is followed by descriptions of the fields illustrated.

RIP Packet Format

· Command—Indicates whether the packet is a request or a response. The request asks that a router send all or part of its routing table. The response can be an unsolicited regular routing update or a reply to a request. Responses contain routing table entries. Multiple RIP packets are used to convey information from large routing tables.

· Version number—Specifies the RIP version used. This field can signal different potentially incompatible versions.

· Zero—This field is not actually used by RFC 1058 RIP; it was added solely to provide backward compatibility with prestandard varieties of RIP. Its name comes from its defaulted value: zero.

· Address-family identifier (AFI)—Specifies the address family used. RIP is designed to carry routing information for several different protocols. Each entry has an address-family identifier to indicate the type of address being specified. The AFI for IP is 2.

· Address—Specifies the IP address for the entry.

· Metric—Indicates how many internetwork hops (routers) have been traversed in the trip to the destination. This value is between 1 and 15 for a valid route, or 16 for an unreachable route.

Note: Up to 25 occurrences of the AFI, Address, and Metric fields are permitted in a single IP RIP packet. (Up to 25 destinations can be listed in a single RIP packet.)

RIP 2 Packet Format

· Command—Indicates whether the packet is a request or a response. The request asks that a router send all or a part of its routing table. The response can be an unsolicited regular routing update or a reply to a request. Responses contain routing table entries. Multiple RIP packets are used to convey information from large routing tables.

· Version—Specifies the RIP version used. In a RIP packet implementing any of the RIP 2 fields or using authentication, this value is set to 2.

· Unused—Has a value set to zero.

· Address-family identifier (AFI)—Specifies the address family used. RIPv2’s AFI field functions identically to RFC 1058 RIP’s AFI field, with one exception: If the AFI for the first entry in the message is 0xFFFF, the remainder of the entry contains authentication information. Currently, the only authentication type is simple password.

· Route tag—Provides a method for distinguishing between internal routes (learned by RIP) and external routes (learned from other protocols).

· IP address—Specifies the IP address for the entry.

· Subnet mask—Contains the subnet mask for the entry. If this field is zero, no subnet mask has been specified for the entry.

·Next hop—Indicates the IP address of the next hop to which packets for the entry should be forwarded.

· Metric—Indicates how many internetwork hops (routers) have been traversed in the trip to the destination. This value is between 1 and 15 for a valid route, or 16 for an unreachable route.

Note: Up to 25 occurrences of the AFI, Address, and Metric fields are permitted in a single IP RIP packet. That is, up to 25 routing table entries can be listed in a single RIP packet. If the AFI specifies an authenticated message, only 24 routing table entries can be specified. Given that individual table entries aren’t fragmented into multiple packets, RIP does not need a mechanism to resequence datagrams bearing routing table updates from neighboring routers.

Summary

Despite RIP’s age and the emergence of more sophisticated routing protocols, it is far from obsolete. RIP is mature, stable, widely supported, and easy to configure. Its simplicity is well suited for use in stub networks and in small autonomous systems that do not have enough redundant paths to warrant the overheads of a more sophisticated protocol.

Review Questions

Q—Name RIP’s various stability features.

A—RIP has numerous stability features, the most obvious of which is RIP’s maximum hop count. By placing a finite limit on the number of hops that a route can take, routing loops are discouraged, if not completely eliminated. Other stability features include its various timing mechanisms that help ensure that the routing table contains only valid routes, as well as split horizon and holddown mechanisms that prevent incorrect routing information from being disseminated throughout the network.

Q—What is the purpose of the timeout timer?

A—The timeout timer is used to help purge invalid routes from a RIP node. Routes that aren’t refreshed for a given period of time are likely invalid because of some change in the network. Thus, RIP maintains a timeout timer for each known route. When a route’s timeout timer expires, the route is marked invalid but is retained in the table until the route-flush timer expires.

Q—What two capabilities are supported by RIP 2 but not RIP?

A—RIP 2 enables the use of a simple authentication mechanism to secure table updates. More importantly, RIP 2 supports subnet masks, a critical feature that is not available in RIP.

Q—What is the maximum network diameter of a RIP network?

A—A RIP network’s maximum diameter is 15 hops. RIP can count to 16, but that value is considered an error condition rather than a valid hop count.

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I’ve added expansion slots to the board, and I have it connected to a 6821 Peripheral Interface Adapter. The 6821 is then connected to a DS1307 real-time clock with backup battery. Communication with the DS1307 is done via I2C, so I wrote software bit-banging I2C routines that run at very nearly 100kbit/sec. And then, for show, I connected the 6821 to some Nixie tube boards, because everyone likes those, and wrote a clock program. Is it practical? Not really. But since it uses (mostly) late-1970s technology, it’s pretty awesome. See the previous videos for more information. I have a page for the project at msarnoff.org and pictures on Flickr: www.flickr.com

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